SCIENCE

| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

SCIENCE
SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES
● Science is a systematized body of ● important aspect of a personality of
knowledge gained through someone who wants to be
observation, experimentation, successful in the field of Science
investigation, and etc.
● “Scientia” means knowledge DIFFERENT SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES:
● “Scire” means to know
● Belief- a scientist believes that
everything happens in this world has
NATURAL SCIENCE
a cause or reason
● studies the physical and natural ● Curiosity- shows interest and pays
world or events that happen in particular attention to objects or
nature events
○ Biological Science- living ● Objectivity- he does not allow his
things feelings and biases to influence his
○ Physical Science- nonliving recording of observations,
things interpretation of data, and
formulation of conclusions
SOCIAL SCIENCE ● Open mindedness- listens to and
● scientific study of human society respects the ideas of others
and social relationships - accepts criticism and changes his
mind if reliable evidences
OTHER BRANCHES: contradicts his belief
● Inventiveness- generates new &
● History- study of past events original ideas
particularly in human affairs ● Risk taking- expresses his opinions
● Paleontology- science of the and tries new ideas
forms of life that existed in prehistoric or ● Intellectual Honesty- truthful report
geologic periods of observations
● Archaeology- human artifacts ● Responsibility- actively participates
and remains in a task and also dutifully performs
● Political Science- deals with tasks assigned to him
systems of government ● Humility- humble when he admits
● Physics- matter & energy and that he is not free from committing
interactions between them errors
● Economics- production and ● Critical Mindedness- bases
consumption suggestions and conclusions on
● Geology- origin, history and evidences
structure of the Earth, and the physical,
chemical, and biological changes that SCIENTIFIC PROCESS
have experienced
● Physiology- study of the normal
functions of the living things Ask a question
● Taxonomy- study of the
classification and naming of living things Background research
(Linnaeus)
● Endocrinology- study of Hypothesis
hormones
● Epidemiology- study of the health Test with an experiment
of populations
Analyze data and conclusion

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

USING GRADUATED CYLINDER TRANSFERRING REAGENTS FROM ONE

CONTAINER TO ANOTHER
1. Place the graduated cylinder on a
leveled working area ● Metal or porcelain spatula- use
2. Make sure that the liquid meniscus porcelain if corrosive
is at eye level ● Place the cover on the clean paper
3. For clear samples, lower meniscus so it will not get contaminated
and for dark-colored samples,
upper meniscus
HOW TO FIT THE FILTER PAPER SNUGLY
TRIPLE BEAM BALANCE
1. Fold in half
● Plate, Adjusting knob (below the 2. Fold in quarter
plate), Beam balance 3. Tear corner
(Ones,tens,hundreds) 4. Then mount cone in funnel and wet
● Add altogether when is already with water
balanced and pointed at zero 5. Press edge of moistened filter
against funnel to seal
USING A PIPETTE

1. Fill it with the use of the rubber

aspirator above the calibration
mark
2. Remove the rubber aspirator and
immediately cover the top of the
pipette with right index finger
3. Adjust the level of meniscus
4. Drain freely the content of the
pipette to the receiver by removing
the right index finger

BUNSEN BURNER

● Gas inlet, Gas regulator, Barrel, Air

regulator- has holes

1. Make sure that rubber tubing

connected to the gas inlet is
secured and not damaged.
2. Close the needle valve and the
airports after which connect the
rubber tubing.
3. Have your matches ready before
opening the gas outlet.
4. Slowly open the needle valve to
damit the fuel and adjust the height
of the flame as desired.
5. To obtain a nonluminous flame,
adjust the airport so as to admit
more air that will mix with the fuel
for complete combustion.

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

DESTRUCTIVE NATURAL FORCES:

EARTHQUAKE
● Shaking of ground
● vibration of the Earth due to rapid ● Liquefaction of soil
release of energy ● Wreak havoc
● classified as most terrifying ● Fire
process
● Philippines is convergent plate
boundary (Philippine mobile belt)
● Ground shaking caused by the CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE-LIKE
sudden and rapid movement of WAVES (Weak)
one block of rock slipping past
another along fractures in Earth’s ● Volcanic eruptions
crust called fault ● Massive landslides
● Meteorite impacts
FAULTS
● locked HARRY FIELDING REID
● confining pressure ● Johns Hopkins University
● enormous overlying crust ● 1906 San Francisco earthquake
“squeezed shut” ● Elastic Rebound
● brief, abrupt movement, slippage ➔ rock behaves elastically
● internal stress occurs in crustal ➔ stretched rubber band
rocks

FOCUS DEFORMATION OF ROCKS

● also called as “hypocenter”
A. Original position of rocks on
● “hypo” means under or beneath
opposite sides of a fault
● slippage begins
● earthquake radiate outward
➔ differential stress- bending
➔ frictional resistance- prevents
bending
EPICENTER
● “epi” means surface B. The movement of tectonic plates
● directly above the hypocenter causes the rocks to bend and store
elastic energy. (↓differential
SEISMIC WAVES ↑frictional)
● form of energy that travels through C. Once the strength of the rocks is
lithosphere and Earth’s interior exceeded, slippage along the fault
● causes the material to shake produces an earthquake.
● vibrations (↑differential ↓frictional)
SEISMOMETER D. The rocks return to their original
● sensitive instrument that can shape but new location
detect an earthquake

● thousands of earthquake everyday

● small and cannot be detected by
people, less energy
● 15 earthquakes are detected per
day, enough energy

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

BODY WAVES LOVE WAVES

● move the ground from side to side
● travel through Earth’s interior ● damaging to the foundations
● from focus and radiate in all structure
directions ● Augustus Edward Hough Love
(British Mathematician,1911)
P-WAVES
● primary wave, compressional wave
SEISMOLOGY
● push (compress)/ pull (stretch)
● travel through the Earth by rocks in ● used by early Chinese
the direction they are traveling ● Ancient-Chinese seismograph
● wave vibration is parallel to wave ➔ jar with dragons that release
travel direction metal ball
● compressions (pushes) and ➔ started almost 2000 years ago
dilations (pulls) are in the same ➔ Zhang Heng (Han dynasty)
direction as the wave is
propagating
● resist stress that change in their
volume when compressed
● elastically spring back when stress
is removed
● can travel through solid, liquid, and
gas

S-WAVES
● secondary, shear
● don’t change the volume of the
area
● shake the particles at right angles
● vibration direction is perpendicular AMPLITUDE
to make travel direction ● maintain maximum amplitude
● alternating transverse motions longer than P-waves and S-waves
perpendicular ● greater ground shaking
● cannot travel through liquid and
gas
SIZE OF AN EARTHQUAKE
● can travel through solid
● do not return their original shape
INTENSITY
● measure of the amount ground
SURFACE WAVES shaking at a particular location
based on observed property
● rock layer just below the Earth’s damaged
surface ● mid 1800s
● severity of earthquake shaking and
RAYLEIGH WAVES destruction
● similar to rolling oceanic wave ● 1857 italian earthquake
● causes the Earth’s surface and ● mapping effects of the earthquake
everything on it to move ● 1902 Giuseppe Mercalli
● Lord Rayleigh (John William ● Modern Mercalli Intensity Scale
Strutt)
1885

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

MAGNITUDE ➔ Castillejos, Zambales

● quantitative measurement ➔ Porac, Pampanga “soft
● force and duration sediments” because of
● relies on data gleaned from the lahar
seismic records to estimate the ➔ 18 dead; 256 injured
amount of energy released at an
earthquake LIQUEFACTION
● 1935 Charles Richter ● transforming stable soil into mobile
➔ California Institute of material capable of rising toward
Technology Earth’s surface.

● Richter Scale
MOMENT MAGNITUDE TSUNAMI
● medium and large earthquake
● total energy released during an ● “harbor wave”
earthquake ● major undersea earthquake
● average amount of slip on the fault occasionally set in motion a series
of large ocean waves
● generated by displacement along a
TRIANGULATION megathrust fault that suddenly lifts
● three different seismic station a slab of sea floor

1. Three seismograms ↓speed ↑height of the wave

- time difference between the arrival
of P-waves and S-waves 1ST WARNING
2. Travel-time graph ● withdrawal of water from beaches
- distance of the seismographs from ● higher ground
epicenter ● 5 to 30 minutes
3. Triangulate location ● surge
- approximate location of the ● people should not return to the
earthquake epicenter shore

❖ Massive undersea earthquake 9.1

- December 26,2004
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE
- Near the island of Sumatra
DEGREE OF DESTRUCTION THAT
ACCOMPANIES AN EARTHQUAKE:
❖ Circum-pacific belt and expansive
● Magnitude and its proximity to a coastline
populated area (12 to 30 miles) - 2011 Tohoku earthquake
● Intensity of the shaking 9.0
● How long the shaking persists - 15,861 deaths, 3000
● What sort of the ground underlies missing, 6107 injured
buildings
● Building construction standards TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEM
● 1946 large tsunami at Hawaii
island
❖ March 27, 1964 Alaska Earthquake ● 15 meters
(128 deaths) with 9.2 highest ● U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
magnitude ● Tsunami warning system for the
coastal areas of the Pacific
❖ April 22, 2019 (5:15 pm)- 6.1 ● 26 countries
magnitude ● Center in Honolulu

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

● Japan, United States, China, and

Russia
● earthquake risks high
● concentrated by monitoring the
precursors
❖ Precursor- events or
changes that precede a
forthcoming earthquake
➢ California Republic
- monitor the changes in the
ground elevation
- variations in strain levels
near active faults
- measure the changes in
groundwater levels
- increase frequency of
foreshocks
➢ Japanese and Chinese
scientist
TIDAL GAUGE - anomalous animal behavior
● rise and fall in the sea level
● warning signal, 1 hr WALTER MOONEY
● sufficient time ● a seismologist from USGS
● … animal behavior is way too
unreliable
NARROW ZONE
● determine an effective way to
● earthquake belt interpret and utilize the information
● 95% of energy released by
earthquake ONE CLAIM OF SUCCESSFUL OF SHORT
RANGE PREDICTION
ALPINE-HIMALAYAN BELT ● foreshocks
● Mediterranean Sea and extends ● Chinese government
past the Himalayan mountains ● Feb. 4, 1975 in Liaong province
● collision of African plate and ● “predicted” an residents were
Eurasian plate evacuated
● Indian plate and Southeast Asia ● one year after 240,000 people
● Thrust and Strike-slip fault perished and earthquake was not
- India to Asia predicted
- Sichuan Province of China
(2008)
MUST BE:
CIRCUM-PACIFIC BELT
● zone greatest seismic activity ● accurate and reliable
● Coastal regions of Chile, Central ● small range of uncertainty in regard
America, Indonesia, Japan, and to location and timing and it must produce
Alaska including Aleutian islands few failures and false alarms
● convergent plate boundaries
● megathrust fault ➢ no reliable method exists for
SHORT RANGE PREDICTIONS making short-range earthquake
predictions
● to provide a warning of the location ➢ not yet feasible
and magnitude of a large
earthquake within a narrow frame

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

LONG RANGE FORECASTS

CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE
● estimates of how likely it is for an ● 150 km (90 miles) thick but may
earthquake of a certain magnitude extend to depths of 200 km (125
to occur on a time scale of 30 to miles) or more beneath the stable
100 years or more interiors of the continents
● statistical estimates of the
expected intensity of ground
motion for a given specified time LITHOSPHERIC PLATES
frame ● two dozen segments of irregular
● not informative size and shape
● useful for providing important ● constant motion with respect to
guides for building codes one another
● cyclical manner, producing similar
quakes 7 MAJOR
● building, dams, and roadways to ● 94% of Earth’s surface
withstand the shaking OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL
★ North America
SEISMIC GAPS ★ South America
● “Quiet zone” ★ African
● thought to be inactive zones that ★ Eurasian
are storing elastic strain that will ★ Australian
eventually produce earthquakes ★ Antarctic
—
PALEOSEISMOLOGY ★ Pacific- largest which
● “Paleo”- ancient encompasses a significant portion
● “Seismos”- shake of the pacific basin (the only
● “Ology”- study of oceanic)
● study of timing, location, and
prehistoric earthquakes INTERMEDIATE-SIZED PLATES
● digging a trench across a ● Arabian (the only continental)
suspected fault zone and then ● Caribbean
looking for evidence of ancient ● Nazca
faulting ● Cocos
★ offset of sedimentary/strata mud ● Scotia
volcanoes ● Philippines
★ San Andreas fault that lies north ● Juan de Fuca
and east of LA
★ Pallet creek (135 years)
EVIDENCES
LITHOSPHERE
● fossil, climate, similarity of edges
● strong outer layer of each plate
● “lithos”- stone, “sphere”-ball
● crust and uppermost mantle
● coolest- rigid solid SCIENTIFIC BASIS
● earthquake and volcanoes and
OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE mountain ranges
● 100 km (60 miles) thick in the
deep-ocean basins but
considerably thinner than oceanic
ridges
● Mafic (basaltic) composition
● greater density

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

● Mountain’s crust thickness-

JOURNEY TO THE CENTER OF THE
72km
EARTH
● ELEMENTS: Oxygen, Silicon,
Magnesium
EVIDENCES
★ rock sample ➢ MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY
- rocks from inside the Earth / MOHO
- drilled holes ● Andrija Mohorovicic (1909,
- 12 km into Earth Yugoslavian seismologist)
- conditions deep inside Earth ● velocity of the waves changes
★ seismic waves ● boundary between crust and
- rocks sample has limitation mantle
- indirect method
- speed and path of seismic waves ★ MANTLE
- structure with different layers ● thickest layer of the Earth
- change in density, waves bend ● 2900 km
● 80% of the Earth’s total volume
and about 68% of its total mass
➔ UPPER MANTLE
➔ MIDDLE MANTLE- Asthenosphere
➔ LOWER MANTLE- Mesosphere
(middle of the Earth)
- hot, great pressure and
mechanically strong
- mineral varies in depth
- Peridotite
➢ upper

↑ differential ↑ density
↑ temperature ↑ pressure

SHADOW ZONE
● area from angular distance (104°
to 140°)
● not receive direct p-waves
● S-waves stopped by entirely liquid
core
● P-waves being bent

EARTH’S INTERIOR
➢ olivine and pyroxene
COMPOSITIONAL ➢ ultramafic rock
★ CRUST
● thinnest and the outermost
layer
● hard, strong rock
● 16 to 32 km

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

★ LITHOSPHERE
➢ GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITY ★ ASTHENOSPHERE
● Beno Gutenberg (1918, ● soft, weak layer
German seismologist) ● “asthenos” meaning weak or
● certain depth beneath the without strength
Earth’s surface, primary waves ● neither solid nor liquid
slowed down and secondary ● soft layer beneath the hard
waves stopped entirely lithosphere
● 1,800 miles beneath the ● plastic layer
surface ● 100 to 350 km
● core-material different than ● higher temperature than
mantle which causes the lithosphere
bending of P-waves ● 300 to 800°C
● boundary between mantle & ● capable of flowing
core 1. soft
2. malleable
★ CORE 3. ductile
● ball, center of the Earth 4. partially molten- neither
● ⅙ of the volume of the Earth solid nor completely liquid
and ⅓ of its total mass
● nickel and iron ★ MESOSPHERE
● 3486 km in radius ● below the asthenosphere
● 13.5 times greater than the ● semi-solid despite of very high
density of water (14x) temperature
● 4000 to 5000°C ● high pressure
● pressure is million times ● minerals different from those of
greater than Earth’s surface upper mantle
● 660 to 2900 km
MECHANICAL
★ OCEANIC CRUST ★ OUTER CORE
● younger ● 2250 km
● beneath the oceans ● 2900 to 5150 km
● thinner compared to ● 2000°C
continental crust ● molten liquid
● 4 to 7 km ● magnetic field
● dark, dense basalt
● 70 to 80% ★ INNER CORE
● higher density, lower buoyancy ● solid
● Iron, Silicon, Magnesium ● metallic sphere
● iron and nickel
★ CONTINENTAL CRUST ● solidify
● 20 to 40 km ● 5150 km to the center of Earth
● under a continent a very large ● 1220 km to 1300 km radius
island ● 5000°C
● light-colored granite, less
dense EARTH’S RADIUS- 6370 km
● Silicon, Oxygen, Aluminum,
Calcium, Sodium, and CLUES
Potassium
● can reach 72km mountain ● iron and nickel are both dense and
places magnetic
● low density, higher buoyancy

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

● overall density of Earth is much ● conservative (effect on the rock)

higher than density of rocks in the
crust
CONVERGENT
● meteorite analysis has revealed
that the most common type is ● Eurasian and Philippine plate
Chondrite (contains Iron, Silicon, ● Australian-Indian and Pacific
Magnesium, Oxygen; some ● Cocos and Caribbean
contain nickel) ● Juan de Fuca and North American
➔ Nebular Theory
DIVERGENT
Lithospheric plates drift because of:
1. Less density ● Australian-Indian and Caribbean
2. Lubrication ● South-American and Australian

PLATE BOUNDARIES DEFORMATION

● edges where two plates meet ● “de” out
● geologic activities ● “forma” form
● volcanoes, earthquakes, and ● changes in shape or position of a
mountain rock in response to differential
● plotting the locations stress
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES ● plate boundaries
● constructive margins ● plate motion + interaction among
● where to plate moves apart, plate margins = causes the rocks
resulting in the upwelling of hot to deform
material from the mantle to create
new seafloor EXAMPLES OF ROCK STRUCTURE
● Spreading (movement) ★ Fold
● Constructive (effect on the rock) - wave-like undulation (smooth
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES rising and falling)
● destructive margins ★ Faults
● where two plates move together, - fractures along which one rock
resulting in oceanic lithosphere body slide past another
descending beneath an overriding - rock on one side has moved
plate, eventually reabsorbed into relative to the other side
the mantle or possibly in the ★ Joints
collision of two continental blocks - cracks
to create a new mountain belt - fractures on a rock without
● subduction (movement) noticeable movement
● destructive (effect on the rock)
SUBDUCTION: STRESS
➔ oceanic continental
➔ oceanic oceanic ● force that deform rocks
↑ stress → deform (folding, flowing,
➔ continental continental fracturing and faulting)
❖ orogenesis- process of
new mountain, buckle upward 2 TYPES OF STRESS
TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES ● Confining Pressure - when stress
● conservative margins is applied uniformly in all direction
● two plates grind past each other ● Differential Stress - stress is
without destroying lithosphere applied unequally in different
● lateral sliding (movement) direction

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

★ Compressional Stress ★ Ductile

(shortening) - solid-state flow
- “com” together - change of shape of an object
- “premere” to press without fracturing (like clay)
- squeeze a rock mass as if
placed in a vise FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE ROCK
→ horizontally (shortened) ↑ vertically STRENGTH
(thickened) ★ Temperature
- reverse fault - high temperature (deep Earth’s
★ Tensional Stress (stretching) crust)
- pulls apart or elongates rock - soften and more malleable
bodies - folding and flowing (ductile
- divergent plate boundaries deformation)
- normal fault - low temperature (near the surface)
➢ Basin(malalim) and Range - brittle solid
➔ plate stretches (rifting)
➔ hot material rises forming fault line ★ Confining Pressure
(doming) - as the depth increases, the
➔ crust fractures temperature and pressure also
➔ early signs of continental drifting increases
- “squeezes”
★ Shear Stress - stronger and harder to break
- causes the rock to shear (break - “held together”
off) - bend and not fracture
- transform plate boundaries
- strike-slip fault ★ Rock type
- mineral composition and
STRAIN temperature
➔ Igneous and Metamorphic rock
● resulting deformation (distortion) (quarts)
● change in the shape of the rock - strong chemical bond
body - does not fracture
● lose their original configuration ➔ sedimentary and other
during deformation metamorphic rock
● Circle to Ellipses
★ Time
TYPES OF DEFORMATION - tectonic forces are applied slowly
★ Elastic - span of time
- deforming elastically - ductile behavior
- stretched rubber band - bending and flowing
- snap back to its nearly original
shape when stress is removed
FOLDS
- chemical bonds of minerals within
a rock are stretched but do not ● originally horizontal surface such
break as sedimentary strata that have
been bent as a result of permanent
★ Brittle deformation
- elastic limit or strength of a rock ● convergent plate boundaries
- bend or break ● compressional stress
- smaller pieces ● wide variety of size and
- “bryttian” to shatter/divide configurations
- breaks the chemical bond ● slightly warped

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

ANATOMY
★ Hinge line
- hinge
- imaginary axis where each layer
bend
★ Axial plane
- axial-relating to axis
- plane-flat surface
- surface that connects all hinge line
of folded strata
★ Limb

TYPES OF FOLDS
★ Anticlines- arise by upfolding or
arching
★ Synclines- downfold or trough

BASIC FOLDS IN TERMS OF

ORIENTATION
★ Symmetrical fold- when the limbs
are a mirror image of each other
★ Asymmetrical fold- not mirror
image
➢ Overturned- if one or both
limbs are slightly slanted
★ Recumbent- highly deformed

FOLDS- tilted by tectonic forces

● hinge line to slope downward
PLUNGE- hinge line of the fold that
penetrate Earth’s surface
EROSION- removing the upper layer of
plunging fold and exposing its interior

DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

OCEANIC RIDGES
● “di” apart
● “vergere” move ● elevated areas of the sea floor
● located along the crests of oceanic ● high heat flow and volcanism
ridges ● global ridge system
● constructive margins ➔ longest topographic feature on
● new ocean floor is generated Earth’s surface
➔ exceeding 70,000 km in length
➔ 20% of Earth’s surface
➔ winds through all major ocean
❖ majority of, but not all basins like the seam on a
divergent plate boundaries baseball
are associated with oceanic ➔ oceanic ridge crest- 2 to 3 km
ridges higher than the adjacent ocean
basin
➔ “ridge” - narrow

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

- width from 1000 km to more than

4000 km
MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE
● undersea mountain chain in the
Atlantic Ocean
● 32 to 48 km long
● 1.6 km deep
● slow spreading rates 5 cm per year
(2 inches) typical rates

EAST PACIFIC RISE

● submerged volcanic mountain
range
● eastern Pacific Ocean that roughly
parallels the western coast of
South America
● 2000 miles (3200 km) off the coast
● 70 meters deep
● exceeding 15 cm per year (6
inches) CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE - 4 billion
years
MID-INDIAN RIDGE
● submarine ridge of the Indian CONTINENTAL RIFTING
Ocean that is a direct continuance
of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ● elongated depression
● 2000 km long ● belt or zone of the continental
● less than 3000 m deep lithosphere
● less than 2 cm/year ● rifting
● new ocean basins

RIFT VALLEY 1. Plates move in opposing direction

● deep canyon-like structure due to tensional force that thin the
● evidence that tensional forces are lithosphere
actively pulling the ocean crust 2. Stretching cause the brittle crust to
apart at the ridge crust break into large blocks that sink,
generating rift valley
SEAFLOOR SPREADING 3. Continued spreading generates a
● mechanism that operates along the long narrow sea
oceanic ridge system to create 4. Expansive deep-ocean basin
new seafloor ● Arabian and East Africa - Red
● 5 cm (2 inches) per year- average sea
spreading rate ● Eurasian and North America -
● slow in human time scale Atlantic ocean

WHY IS IT ELEVATED? GEOLOGIC FEATURE - Rift Valley

- newly created oceanic lithosphere GEOLOGIC EVENTS - Shallow
is hot, which means it is less dense earthquake, volcanic eruption
than cooler rocks found away from GEOLOGIC PROCESS - seafloor
the ridge axis spreading

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES

● leading edge is bent downward as
it slide beneath the other
● subduction zone
● site where lithosphere is
descending into the mantle

SUBDUCTION
greater density of the descending
lithosphere plate → underlying ● 2010 Chilean earthquake (one of
asthenosphere the 10 largest earthquakes)

OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE
● 2% more dense than the
underlying asthenosphere which
causes it to subduct

CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE
● less dense and resist subduction

DEEP-OCEAN TRENCHES
● large linear depressions
● surface manifestations produced
as oceanic lithosphere descends
into mantle

★ Peru-Chile Trench ● Western Pacific- 180 million years

- west coast of South America - older and deeper than those of
- more than 4500 km long and its Eastern Pacific
base is as much as 8 km below the
sea level TYPE BASED ON CRUSTAL MATERIAL
INVOLVED AND THE TECTONIC SETTING
★ Mariana and Tongha Trenches
- western Pacific 1.) Oceanic-Continental
- deeper than those of the Eastern - denser oceanic slab sinks into
Pacific the mantle
- 100 km or 60 miles
➢ DESCENDING CLASSIFICATION - asthenosphere
- age and density - melting is triggered
- angles vary from few degrees to
near vertical (90°) ❖ COOL SLAB
- wet rock → high pressure
COAST OF CHILE environment
- water is contained in descending
plate

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SCIENCE
| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

low density, higher buoyancy + low

density, higher buoyancy = higher
density, lower buoyancy

OPHIOLITE - fragments of oceanic

crust

Mountain & mountain belt

(sedimentary, metamorphic & slivers of
oceanic lithosphere)

★ Himalayas
- 50 million years ago
- India “rammed” into Asia
★ Alps, Appalachians, Urals

GEOLOGIC FEATURE - Mountain,

Mountain belt
GEOLOGIC EVENTS - Shallow
earthquake
GEOLOGIC PROCESS - Orogenesis
HOW THE PHILIPPINE ISLAND ARC
WAS FORMED?
● 7500 islands
● series of volcanoes
● Sundaland Plate (Eurasia) - west
● Philippine Sea Plate - east
TWO PARTS THAT FORM THE PHILIPPINE
ARCHIPELAGO
★ Palawan Microcontinental Block
★ Philippine Mobile Belt
GEOLOGIC FEATURE - Volcanoes,
Continental Volcanic arcs, trench PHILIPPINE ISLAND ARC SYSTEM
GEOLOGIC EVENTS - Earthquake, ● Igneous, Sedimentary, and
volcanic eruption Metamorphic rocks
GEOLOGIC PROCESS - Subduction ● collision of geologic blocks
● subduction of crustal material
2.) Oceanic - Oceanic along trenches
● same with oceanic-continental ● volcanism, earthquake
● tsunami ● fragments of crust and upper
mantle on land
GEOLOGIC FEATURE - Trench, TRENCHES
Volcanoes, Volcanic island arc or island
arc
➢ Manila - cause of Pinatubo and
GEOLOGIC EVENTS - Earthquake,
Taal
Volcanic Eruption, Tsunami
➢ Negros
GEOLOGIC PROCESS - Subduction
➢ Cotabato
➢ Sulu
3.) Continental - Continental
● mountains are formed in the PHILIPPINE FAULT ZONE
continental lithosphere ● 1200 km
● no subduction ● Bangui to Mati Fault (not straight)

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| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

➢ San Andreas Fault

PALAWAN MICROCONTINENTAL BLOCK - San Andreas Lake (crystal
● not originally part of Philippine spring reservoir)
island arc system → mainland Asia - looking south along fault
- San Francisco water supply
1.) Southern part is removed
2.) Continental margin is thin and ● GEOLOGIC EVENTS - earthquake
oceanic crust ● GEOLOGIC FEATURE - linear
3.) Open up southward valleys - stream beds
4.) Collide with PMB moving
northward
EVIDENCES
● Age of rocks
● Composition of rocks
● Fossil

❖ Romblon
❖ Panay Island
❖ Busuanga
❖ Some parts of Mindoro

TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES

● transform fault
● plates slide horizontally past one
another without producing or
destroying lithosphere
● 1965
● ocean floor
● step-like margins
● offset segments of the oceanic
ridge system
JOHN TUZO WILSON
● Canadian geologist
● connects two spreading centers
(divergent boundaries) or less
commonly, two trenches
(convergent boundaries)
FRACTURE ZONES
● huge, long linear scars on the
seafloor
● both active transform faults and
their inactive extensions into the
plate interior
★ ACTIVE
- lies between two offset ridge
segments
- earthquake
★ INACTIVE
- fractures are preserved as linear
topographic depressions
- no earthquake

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| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY LAURASIA (NORTH)

➔ North America, Asia, Europe

PRIOR THE LATE 1960’s GONDWANALAND (SOUTH)

➔ Earth’s continents are not static → ➔ Africa, Arabia, S. America, Antarctica,
Gradually migrate across the globe → India, Australia
Movement → Blocks of continent
collide → Deforming crust →
Landmasses split apart → New ocean EVIDENCES OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT
basin → Seafloor → Plunge into the THEORY
mantle 1.) Fitting of South America and Africa
TECTONIC PROCESSES (Continental Jigsaw Puzzle)
- continents might once joined
➔ processes that deform Earth’s - remarkable similarity between the
crust to create major structural coastlines on the opposite sides
features such as mountains, - Atlantic Ocean
continents, and ocean basin - present-day shorelines
➔ scientific revolution - impossible to fit
- early 20th century - shoreline (wave erosion and
- continental drift by Alfred Wegener depositional processes)
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY - good fit today is unlikely
● more than 50 years - Crude
● categorically rejected - early 1960s
● continents are capable of - submerged a few hundred meters
movement below the sea level
● North American geologists - Edward Bullard
● Africa, South America and - map
Australia - South America and Africa with a
depth of 900 m (3000 ft)
★ 1600s - South America and Africa - more precise
★ 1915 - Alfred Wegener
- German meteorologist and 2.) Geographic distribution of fossils
Geophysicist matching across the seas
- “ The origin of continents - fossil organisms discovered in
and oceans” rocks from South America, Africa,
- Continental drift Antarctica, India
- Ocean basins and - review of literature
continents had fixed - Paleontologist agree that there is
geographic positions some type of land connection
ALFRED WEGENER (1880-1930) - Mesozoic age life-forms
● single “supercontinent” consisting - several fossil organisms
of all land masses once existed - “crossed”
● Edward Suess (19th century)
● Pangea or Pangaea (all lands) ➢ Mesosaurus
● 200 million years ago, during the - fresh water reptile
early part of Mesozoic era began - carbonized black shales of the
to fragments Permian period in eastern South
● “Drifted” America and Southwestern Africa
➔ Pangaea pinagmulan kaya siya - if it takes a long journey in South
mas kilala Atlantic, remains would likely be
more distributed
OTHER NAMES: Vaalbara, Ur, Kenorland,
Columbia/Nuna, Rodinia

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| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

➢ Cynognathus
GREAT DEBATE
- mammal-like reptile
- land dominant species ➔ did not attract open criticism
- South America and South Africa ➔ until 1924
➔ English, French, Spanish, and
EXPLANATION OF IDENTICAL FOSSIL Russian
ORGANISMS ➔ 1930
➔ rafting
➔ island stepping stones There is no credible mechanism for
➔ Isthmian links (transoceanic land continental drift
bridges) HYPOTHESIS:
➔ Ice age (8000 years ago) ➢ Gravitational forces of the moon
& Sun produces Earth’s tides
➢ Glossopteris - but according to Harold Jeffreys,
- “seed fern” this will cause in halting of planet’s
- tongue-shaped leaves and seeds rotation
that were too large to be carried by ➢ Larger and sturdier continents
the wind broke through thinner oceanic
- Africa, Australia, India, and South crust
America WHY WAS HE UNABLE TO OVERTURN
- Antarctica THE ESTABLISHES SCIENTIFIC VIEWS OF
- Alaska HIS DAYS?
- South Pole ➢ Correct but contained some
incorrect details
3.) Rock types & geologic features ➢ Continents do not break through
- “picture” should match the “continental ocean floor
drift puzzle” ➢ Tidal energy is much weak to
- the rock found in a particular region on cause continents to displace
one continent should closely match in
age and type of those found in 1930 - fourth and final trip of Alfred
adjacent positions on the one Wegener to the Greenland ice
adjoining continent sheet
- ice cap and its climate
SUPPORTING DETAILS: - continue to test the continental drift
- 2.2 billion year old igneous rocks in hypothesis
Brazil that closely resembled - Eismitte
similarly aged rocks in Africa
- Appalachians trends ★ Comprehensive scientific theory to
northeastward through the eastern gain wide acceptance, withstand
United States and disappears off critical testing from all areas of
the coast of Newfoundland Science
- British Isles, Western Africa, and
Scandinavia EVIDENCES OF SEAFLOOR SPREADING
THEORY
4.) Ancient Climates
- world climates (paleoclimatic) 1.) Ocean Drilling
- glacial period that dated to the late - evidence where most of the data
paleozoic had been discovered in presented for seafloor spreading is
Southern Africa, South America, supported by Deep Sea Drilling
Australia, India Project
- using glacial striation (patterns) - 1968 to 1983
- coal deposits - samples from the ocean floor to
established the age

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| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

- Glomar Challenger is a drilling ship

capable of working in water
thousands of meters deep was
built
- hundred of holes were drilled
through the layer of sediments that
blanket the ocean crust as well into
the basaltic rocks below
- fossil remains of microorganism
found in sediments resting directly
on the crust at each site to use
instead of radiometric dates
- because the salt water may alter - Volcanic islands and seamounts
the age of the crust itself making (submarine volcanoes)
the date unreliable - Linear chains of volcanic structures
- 129 volcanoes
RESULTS OF DRILLING - Extend from the Hawaiian Islands
● Sediments increase in age with to Midway Island and continue
increasing distance from the ridge northwestward toward the Aleutian
● Sediment thickness increases with trench
increasing distance from the ridge - Hawaiian Island- Emperor
● Ocean basins sediments are Seamount chain
geologically young - Radiometric dates
- Volcanoes increase in age with
- Harry Hess and Robert Dietz have increasing distance
similar ideas. Therefore, the
Seafloor Spreading Theory is - The youngest volcanic island in
correct. the chain of Hawaii rose from
the ocean floor - less than 1
- October 2003, JOIDES (Joint million-year-old
Oceanographic Institutions for - Midway island - 27 million years
Deep Earth Sampling) Resolution old and
- IODP (Integrated Ocean Drilling - Detroit Seamount, near the
Program) Aleutian trench - about 80 million
- Chikyu (Japanese term means years old.
“Planet Earth” ) 210 m long (nearly
7,000 m) 2007 - Most of the researchers agree that
- Complete section of the ocean a mantle plume is located beneath
crust the island of Hawaii.

2.) Mantle Plume and Hotspots 3.) Paleomagnetism (Fossil

● Mantle Plume - narrow region of Magnetism)
mantle material that is hotter than EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
the surrounding mantle. - Earth’s Magnetic Field has north
- area where heat and/rock in the and south magnetic poles
mantle rising towards the surface - Geographic poles (align with the
Earth’s rotational axis intersects
● Hotspot - area on Earth that exist the surface)
over a mantle plume - Earth's Magnetic Field is similar to
- Surface manifestation that there is that produced by a simple bar
volcanism, high heat flow and magnet
crustal uplifting

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| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

- invisible lines of force pass through ➔ If the magnetic poles remain

the planet and extend from one stationary, their apparent movement is
magnetic pole to the other produced by continental drift.
- a compass needle itself is a small MAGNETIC REVERSALS AND SEAFLOOR
magnet free to rotate on an axis, SPREADING
becomes aligned with the magnetic ➔ Earth’s magnetic field periodically
lines of force and points to the reverses polarity
magnetic poles ➔ Magnetic reversal
- less obvious than the pull of gravity ➔ Magnetic reversal means that the
- compass to confirm its presence magnetic north becomes magnetic
- aside from the compass, some south and vice versa
naturally occurring minerals are
magnetic and are influenced by NORMAL POLARITY
Earth’s magnetic field ➔ Rocks that exhibit the same
MAGNETITE - are iron rich minerals that
are abundant in lava flows of basaltic
composition

- Basaltic lava erupt at the surface at

temperatures greater than 1000 °C
- Curie point - 585 °C
- At the start, magnetite grains in
molten lava are non-magnetic
- As it solidify, grains become
magnetized and aligned
themselves in the direction of the magnetism as the present
existing lines of force magnetic field
- Magnetism they possess usually REVERSE POLARITY
remains “frozen”
➔ Rocks exhibiting the opposite
- Compass needle – magnetic poles
magnetism
- Rocks that contain a record of the
direction of the magnetic poles at
the time of their formation ★ 10 million years, 4 to 5 reversal
★ Cretaceous era, no reversal
APPARENT POLAR WANDERING
➔ ancient lava flows spread throughout
the Europe - Magnetic poles of lava flows and
➔ magnetic alignment of iron-rich use the radiometric dating
minerals in lava flows of different ages techniques for the age
indicated that the position of the - Magnetic Time scale
paleomagnetic poles had changed - Chrons - major divisions called
through time chrons and last roughly 1 million
➔ the past 500 million years pole had years
gradually wandered from a location - Oceanographers had begun to do
➔ near Hawaii northeastward to its magnetic surveys of the ocean
present location over the Arctic Ocean floors in relation with their efforts to
➔ magnetic poles are considered to construct detailed maps of seafloor
move in erratic path topography
➔ position of magnetic poles averaged - The goal of these geophysical
over thousand of years correspond survey was to map variations in the
closely to the position of geographic strength of Earth’s magnetic field
poles that arise from differences in the
➔ a more acceptable explanation was magnetic properties of the
provided by Wegener hypothesis underlying crustal rock

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| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

- Sensitive instruments called 2.) Ridge push

magnetometers - magma upwells and form new
- First comprehensive type- Pacific crust
coasts of North America - less dense and rises than the other
- High and Low intensity magnetism side of the plate
- 1963 - pushes the older rocks out of this
- Fred Vine and Drummond Hoyle way
Matthews
OTHER FACTORS:
- Sea floor spreading
HIGH-INTENSITY MAGNETISM ★ Mantle Drag
- Asthenosphere is moving at a
- Regions where the velocity that exceeds that of the
paleomagnetism of the ocean crust plate = mantle drag enhance plate
exhibits normal polarity
motion
- Reinforce Earth’s magnetic field - Asthenosphere is moving more
LOW-INTENSITY MAGNETISM slowly than the plate or it is moving
- Regions where the ocean crust is in opposite direction = resist plate
polarized in the reverse direction motion
- Weaken the existing magnetic field ★ Friction
HOW DO PARALLEL STRIPES OF - overriding and subducting plate
NORMALLY AND REVERSELY - earthquake
MAGNETIZED ROCK BECOME PLATE-MANTLE CONVECTION
DISTRIBUTED ACROSS THE OCEAN
FLOOR? 1.) Whole mantle convection
- sinking slabs of cold oceanic
- When new basaltic rocks form at lithosphere are the downward
mid-ocean ridges, they magnetize limbs of convection cells, while
according to Earth’s existing magnetic rising mantle plumes carry hot
field. Hence oceanic crust provides a material from the core-mantle
permanent record of each reversal of boundary toward the surface
our planet’s magnetic field over the
past 200 million years.

WHAT DRIVES PLATE MOTION?

➢ Drive - operate and control the
direction and speed of something
CONVECTION / CONVECTION CURRENT
➔ hot mantle rocks rise and cold dense
2.) Layer cake model
oceanic lithosphere sinks
- two largely disconnected
➔ ultimate driver of plate motion
convective layers
- operate and control the direction
- a dynamic upper layer driven by
and speed of plate motion
descending slabs of cold oceanic
MAJOR DRIVING FORCE OF PLATE lithosphere and sluggish lower
MOTION layer that carries heat upward
1.) Slab pull without appreciably mixing with the
- older part of the plate sinks down layer above
into mantle because its older and
more dense
- gravity pull
- convergent plate boundaries

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| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

MEASURE OF PLATE MOTION PRINCIPLE OF ORIGINAL

HORIZONTALITY
- direction and rate of plate motion - layers of sediments are generally
- lithospheric plates move deposited in horizontal position
- geologic time - if they are folded or inclined in an
METHODS steep angle, they must have been
- radiometric dates moved into that position by crucial
- paleomagnetism disturbances after their deposition
- Global Positioning System (GPS) PRINCIPLE OF LATERAL CONTINUITY
GPS → Satellite → Radio signal → - sedimentary beds originate as
GPS receiver continuous layers that extend in all
directions until they eventually
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY + grade into different type of
SEAFLOOR SPREADING THEORY sediment or until they thin out the
= PLATE TECTONIC THEORY edge of the basin of deposition
- absolute true PRINCIPLE OF CROSS-CUTTING
- unifying theory RELATIONSHIPS
- but some geologists don’t believe - geologic features that cut across
rocks must form after the rocks
EVIDENCES they cut through
1.) Age of crustal materials - igneous intrusions, fractures in a
2.) Volcanic activity and seismicity rock or fault offset
3.) Hotspot - A,D,C,Dike
4.) Geodesy - satellite PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSIONS
RELATIVE DATING Inclusions
- fragments of one rock unit that
● process of determining if one rock have been enclosed within another
or geologic events is older or - rock mass adjacent to the one
younger than another, without containing the inclusions must
knowing their specific ages have been there first in order to
● place rocks in their proper provide rock fragments
sequence or formation - the rock mass contains inclusion is
● first, second, third, and so on the younger of the two
NUMERICAL DATES Xenolith
- inclusions in an igneous intrusion
● actual number of years that have that form when pieces of
passed since an event occurred surrounding rock are incorporated
● radiometric dating techniques with magma
● carbon-14
STRATIGRAPHY
PRINCIPLES OF RELATIVE DATING - branch of geology concerned with
the order and relative position of
strata and their relationship to the
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
geological time scale
- Nicolas Sterno, Danish anatomist,
UNCONFORMITY
geologist, and priest
➔ breaks in the rock record
- Mt. of Western Italy
➔ long period during which deposition
- “super” above, “positum” to place
caused erosion removed previously
- in an undeformed sequence of
formed rocks, and then deposition
sedimentary rocks, each bed is
resumed layers of rock that have been
older than the one above and
younger than the one below CONFORMABLE
- lava flows and bed of ash from ➔ deposited essentially without
volcanic eruptions interruption

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| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

★ Lilip - Organism Crinoid

TYPES OF UNCONFORMITY
★ Tyrantrum - Organism
Tyrannosaurus Rex
ANGULAR ★ Omanyte - Organism Nautiloids
- boundary between two sequences ★ Aerodactyl - Organism
of sedimentary rocks where the Quetzalcoatlus
underlying ones have been tilted or FOSSIL
folded and eroded prior to the
deposition of the younger ones - remains or traces of prehistoric life
- compressional stress and important inclusions in
(1) Deposition sediment and sedimentary rocks
(2) Deformation - important tool for the interpretation
(3) Erosion of geologic past
(4) Retrieved deposition - correlating rocks of similar ages
that are from different places
DISCONFORMITY PALEONTOLOGY
- boundary between two sequences - scientific study of fossils
of sedimentary rocks where the - geology and biology
underlying ones have been eroded - understand all aspects of the
(but not tilted) prior to the succession of life over the vast
deposition of younger ones expanse of geologic time

NONCONFORMITY
- boundary between
non-sedimentary rocks (below) and
sedimentary rocks (above)
- non-sedimentary rocks could be
igneous or metamorphic indicating
that a long period of erosion
occurred before deposition of
sediments

PARACONFORMITY
- no evidence of a gap in time
because the plates above and
below the gap are parallel and
there is no evidence of erosion ★ bones, teeth, shells, entire animals
- there is a long period (typically EXAMPLE:
millions of years) of non-deposition ➢ Mammoth
between two parallel layers - remains of prehistoric elephants
- frozen from Arctic tundra of Siberia
and Alaska
➢ Sloth
- mummified remain
- preserved in a dry cave in Nevada
TYPES OF FOSSIL

PERMINERALIZATION
- process when a mineral-rich
groundwater permeates porous
tissue

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| TEACHER (Ms. Clarissa B. Igana) | FIRST QUARTER 2022 | @mxromanoff

- such as bone or wood, minerals pertaining to the size and food

precipitate out of a solution and fill habits of organisms
pores and empty spaces GASTROLITHS
- matitira yung sediments sa loob - highly polished stomach stones
➢ Petrified Wood that were used in the grinding of
Petrified - “turned into food of some extinct reptiles
stone”
- involves permineralization with
silica, often from a volcanic source
such as surrounding layer of ash
- wood is gradually formed into chert
- colorful bands from impurities such
as iron and carbon
- microscopic details of the petrified
structure are faithfully retained
MOLDS AND CASTS
- shell or another structure is buried
in sediment and then dissolved by
underground water
- doesn’t reveal any information
concerning its internal structure
CARBONIZATION AND IMPRESSION
➢ Carbonization - leaves and
delicate animal forms fine
sediment encases the remains of
an organism
- As the times passes, pressure
squeezed out the liquid and
gaseous components and leaves
behind a thin residue of carbon
➢ Impression - the replica on the
surface without the film of carbon
AMBER
- insect trapped in resin

TRACE FOSSILS
- traces of prehistoric life
- indirect evidences
TRACK
- animal footprints made in soft
sediments that later turned into
sedimentary rocks
BURROWS
- tubes in sediments, wood, or rocks
made by an animal
- filled with mineral matter and
preserved
- worm burrows
COPROLITES
- fossil dung and stomach contents
that can provide useful information

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